Учебное пособие для студентов, обучающихся по специальности «История», «Музеология»

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Название	Учебное пособие для студентов, обучающихся по специальности «История», «Музеология»
страница	6/15
Тип	Учебное пособие

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death penalty

to injure

to kidnap

thief

property contracts

false accuser

to damage

to be awarded

offender

blood feud

вор

смертная казнь

клеветник

правонарушитель

кровная месть

наносить ущерб

наносить увечья

похищать

имущественные контракты

получать компенсацию

Ex. 3. Do the following tasks on this text:

divide the text into logical parts
give a title to each part
give the contents of each part in 1 or 2 sentences
give a summary of the whole text.

Ex. 4. Make a presentation on Laws of Babylon using all necessary vocabulary from exercises 2 and 3 and your own knowledge of this theme.

Lesson 6
Text A
Egyptian Civilization
Answer the questions in pairs:
What associations does the word “Egypt” call to mind?

Make a list of ideas and compare your notes.
Study the pronunciation of the following proper names:
Egypt [′i:dʒipt] - Египет

Egyptian [i′dʒip∫(ə)n] – египетский, египтянин

Ethiopia[¸i:θi′əupiə] - Эфиопия

Giza [′gi:zə] – Гиза (плато ок. Каира, местонахождение древних пирамид)

Khartoum [ka:′tum] - Хартум (город в Африке, столица Судана)

Khufu ['ku:fu] – Великая пирамида Хеопса (Куфу)

Mediterranean Sea [¸meditəreiniən si:] – Средиземное море

Macedonian [¸mæsi′dəuniən] – македонский, македонянин

Memphis [′memfis] – Мемфис (древний центр нижнего Египта на Ниле)

Nile, the [′nail] – р. Нил

Re [rei] - Ра (бог солнца в древнеегипетской мифологии)
Guess the meaning of the following words:
alluvial [ə′lu:viəl], adj

archaic [a:′keiik], adj

caste [kast], n

cuneiform [′kju:niˏfɔ:m], n

hierarchy [′haiəra:ki], n

papyrus [pə′pairəs], n

pharaoh [′feərəu], n

uninhabitable [¸ʌnin′hæbitəb(ə)l], adj

Study the following words:
arid [′ærid], adj – сухой, засушливый

carving ['ka:viŋ], n – резьба по дереву или камню, орнамент

determine [di′tɜ:min], v – определять, решать

divine [di′vain], adj - божественный

evidence [′evid(ə)ns], n – доказательство, свидетельство

exalted [ig′zo:ltid], adj - возвышенный

supremacy [su:′preməsi], n – верховенство, господство, превосходство

swell [swel], v – раздувать, увеличивать

tangible [′tændʒib(ə)l], adj – осязаемый, ощутимый

yield [ji:ld], v - приносить

Read and translate the text using a dictionary if necessary:

Mesopotamian men and women viewed themselves as subservient to the gods and believed humans were at the mercy of the god's arbitrary decisions. To counter their insecurity, the Mesopotamians not only developed the arts of divination in order to understand the wishes of their gods, but also relieved some anxiety by establishing codes that regulated their relationships with one another. These law codes became an integral part of Mesopotamian society. Although there were early Sumerian law codes, the best-preserved Mesopotamian collection of law codes was that of Hammurabi (18th century B.C.).

The CODE OF HAMMURABI reveals a society of strict justice. Penalties for criminal offenses were severe and varied according to the wealth of the individual. According to the code, there were three social classes in Babylonia: an upper class of nobles (government officials, priests, and warriors), the class of freemen (merchants, artisans, professionals, and wealthy farmers), and a lower class of slaves. An offense against a member of the upper class was punished with more severity than the same offense against a member of a lower class. The principle of retaliation ("an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth") was fundamental. It was applied in cases where members of the upper class committed criminal offenses against their own social equals. But for offenses against members of the lower classes, a money payment was made instead.

Mesopotamian society, like any other society, had its share of crime. Burglary was common. If a person stole goods belonging to the temples, he was put to death, and so was the person who received the stolen goods. If the private property of an individual was stolen, the thief had to make a tenfold restitution. If he could not do so he was put to death. An offender caught attempting to loot a burning house was to be "thrown into that fire."

Private individuals were often responsible for bringing charges before a court of law. To insure that accusations were not brought lightly, the accuser in cases of murder was responsible for proving his case against the defendant. If the accuser could not, he was put to death. Providing false testimony in a murder case meant the same fate.

Hammurabi's code took seriously the responsibilities of all public officials. The governor of an area and city officials were expected to catch burglars. If they failed to do so, public officials in which the crime took place had to replace the lost property. If murderers were not found, the officials had to pay a fine to the relatives of the murdered person.

The law code also extended into the daily life of the ordinary citizen. Builders were held responsible for the buildings they constructed. If a house collapsed and caused the death of its owner, the builder was put to death. Goods destroyed by the collapsed must also be replaced and the house itself rebuilt at the builder's expense.

Slavery was a common feature of Mesopotamian society. Slaves were obtained by war; others were criminals. Crimes such as striking one's older brother and kicking one's mother were punished by condemnation to slavery. A man could pay his debts by selling both his children and wife into slavery for a specified length of time. One could become a slave simply by going into debt.

The number of laws in Hammurabi's code dedicated to land and commerce reveal the importance of agriculture and trade in Mesopotamian society. Numerous laws dealt with questions of landholding, such as the establishment of conditions for renting farmland.

The largest number of laws in the Code of Hammurabi were dedicated to marriage and family. Parents arranged marriages for their children. After marriage, the party signed a marriage contract. Without this contract, no one was considered legally married. While the husband provided a bridal payment, the woman's parents were responsible for a dowry to the husband. Dowries were carefully monitored and governed by regulations.

Mesopotamian society was a patriarchal society, and so women possessed far fewer privileges and rights in their marriage. A woman's place was at home and failure to fulfill her duties was grounds for divorce. If she was not able to bear children, her husband could divorce her but he had to repay the dowry. If his wife tried to leave the home in order to engage in business, her husband could divorce her and did not have to repay the dowry. Furthermore, if his wife was a "gadabout, … neglecting her house [and] humiliating her husband," she could be drowned.

Women were guaranteed some rights, however. If a woman was divorced without good reason she received the dowry back. A woman could seek divorce and get her dowry back if her husband was unable to show that she had done anything wrong. The mother also chose a son to whom an inheritance would be passed.

Fathers ruled their children as well as their wives. Obedience was expected: "If a son has struck his father, they shall cut off his hand." If a son committed a serious enough offense, his father could disinherit him. It should be clear that the Code of Hammurabi covered virtually every aspect of an individual's life. Although scholars have questioned the extent to which these laws were actually employed in Babylonian society, the Code of Hammurabi provides us an important glimpse into the values of Mesopotamian civilization.
Ex.1. Answer the following questions:

Why did Mesopotamian people establish law codes?
When was the Code of Hammurabi drawn up?
What social classes were in Babylonia according to the code?
What spheres of life did the code cover? Give examples.
Did Mesopotamian women have any rights?
What were the penalties for criminal and civil offenses?
How do you understand the principle “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth”?

Ex. 2. a) Give English equivalents to the following expressions:
согласно кодексу

выносить обвинение

ложные показания

устраивать браки

быть ответственным за

возмещать убытки в десятикратном размере

Ex. 3. Match the words with their definitions:

1. offense	A person against whom a charge is brought in a law court
2. justice	An act of wrongdoing, especially of breaking the law; crime
3. restitution	An amount of money paid as a punishment
4. burglary	Something which is owned; possession(s)
5. commit a crime	The act of returning something lost or stolen to its owner; or of paying for damage
6. property	The crime of entering a building by force with the intention of stealing
7. defendant	The quality of being just; fairness
9. fine	To do something illegal; to offend

Ex. 4. Form nouns from these verbs, using the suffixes –er, -or, -(a)tion, -enc, -ance, -ment. Consult the dictionary and the text:
To govern, to offend, to punish, to murder, to expect, to construct, to own, to condemn, to inherit, to obey.
Ex. 5. Translate from Russian into English:

Согласно кодексу Хаммурапи, наказания за преступления были суровыми и зависели от благосостояния человека.
Преступление против представителя высшего сословия наказывалось с большей жестокостью, чем то же самое преступление, но совершенное против человека низшего класса.
Принцип возмездия применялся в тех случаях, когда члены высшего сословия совершали преступления против представителей своего же класса.
Однако за преступления против представителей низшего сословия взимался лишь денежный штраф.
Если человек крал имущество, принадлежащее храму, его приговаривали к смертной казни, так же как и человека, который взял краденые вещи.

Ex. 6. Discuss the following statements in groups:

Punishments under the Hammurabi’s code were always fair.
Crime doesn’t pay.
Judge not least you be judged.

Text B
Laws of Babylon

Read the text without a dictionary and try to understand its general content. Answer these questions:

1. What does the text deal with?

2. Have you found any new information here?

3. Why do you think laws appeared?

4. What issues did the early laws emphasize? Why?

One of the most detailed ancient legal codes was drawn up in about 1758 B.C. by Hammurabi, a king of Babylonia. The entire code, consisting of 282 paragraphs, was carved into a great stone pillar, which was set up in a temple to the Babylonian god Marduk so that it could be read by every citizen.

The pillar, lost for centuries after the fall of Babylon in the 16^th century B.C., was rediscovered by a French archeologist in 1901 amid the ruins of the Persian city of Susa. Hammurabi’s words were still legible. The pillar is now in the Louvre museum in Paris.

The laws laid down by Hammurabi were more extensive than any that had been before. They covered crime, divorce and marriage, the rights of slave owners and slaves, the settlement of debts, inheritance and property contracts; there were even regulations about taxes and the prices of goods.

Punishments under the code were often harsh. The cruel principle of revenge was observed: an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth, which meant that criminals had to receive as punishment precisely those injuries and damages they had inflicted upon their victims. Not only murderers but also thieves and false accusers faced the death penalty. And a child who hit his father could expect to lose the hand that struck the blow. The code outlawed private blood feuds and banned the tradition by which a man could kidnap and keep a woman he wanted for his bride. In addition the new laws took account of the circumstances of the offender as well as of the offence. So a lower-ranking citizen who lost a civil case would be fined less than an aristocrat in the same position – though he would also be awarded less if he won.

Nevertheless, Hammurabi’s laws represented an advance on earlier tribal customs, because the penalty could not be harder than the crime.
Ex. 1. Write down Russian equivalents for the words and expressions in bold type. Consult a dictionary if necessary.

Ex. 2. Match the English words and expressions with the Russian ones:

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