Сборник текстов по английскому языку для студентов III-IV курсов
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Сборник текстов по английскому языку для студентов III-IV курсов Содержание Chapter I. Education. Lesson 1. Education in Russia. Lesson 2. The system of education in the USA. Lesson 3. Education in Britain. Life at school. University Education. Chapter II. How to make a Motion Picture. Lesson 1. Introduction. Lesson 2. Types of Motion Pictures. Lesson 3. The People who make a Motion Picture. Lesson 4. Shooting a Motion Picture. Lesson 5. Projecting a Motion Picture. Lesson 6. Distributing and Marketing a Motion Picture. Chapter III. Pioneers. Lesson 1. Thomas Alva Edison. Lesson 2. William Kennedy Laurie Dickson. Lesson 3. Lumière Brothers. Lesson 4. Birt Acres. Lesson 5. Robert William Paul. Lesson 6. Georges Méliès. Lesson 7. Cecil Hepworth. Lesson 8. Edwin Stanton Porter. Chapter IV. Technology. Lesson 1. Zoetrope. Lesson 2. Praxinoscope. Lesson 3. Kinetoscope. Lesson 4. Cinématographe. Lesson 5. Mutoscope. Lesson 6. Vitascope. Chapter 1. Education. LESSON 1. EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. Every citizen of our country has the right to education. This right is guaranteed by the Constitution. It is not only a right but a duty too. Most children of preschool age attend nurseries and kindergartens. This helps parents to prepare children to school. Children go to school at the age of 6 or 7 and stay there until they are 14-17 years old. Universal primary education was introduced in Russia in the 1930s, and universal secondary education – in the 1970s. At school pupils study academic subjects, such as Russian, Literature, Maths, History, Biology, a foreign language and others. Lessons are conducted 6 days a week, except Sundays. Each lesson lasts 40 minutes with breaks between classes from 10 to 20 minutes. The school year in Russia begins on September 1st and lasts till the end of May. It is divided into four terms with holidays after each term. After finishing nine forms of a secondary school young people can continue their education in the 10th and the 11th forms. They can also go to a vocational or technical school where they study academic subjects and receive a profession. A college gives a general knowledge of academic subjects and a profound knowledge in one or several subjects. After finishing a secondary, vocational, technical school or a college, young people can start working or enter an institute or a university. Institutes or universities train specialists in different fields. A course at an institute or a university usually takes five years. Many universities have evening and extramural departments. They give their students an opportunity to study without leaving their jobs. Institutes and universities usually have graduate courses, which give candidate or doctoral degrees. Education in Russia is free at most schools. There are some private primary and secondary schools where pupils have to pay for their studies. Students at institutes and universities get scholarships. At many institutes and universities there are also departments where students have to pay for their education. Active Vocabulary.
LESSON 2. THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN THE USA. The school system. All American children have the right to thirteen years of free education at a public school. Approximately 11 per cent of children go to private schools, because the class size is smaller or academic standards may be higher. Some private schools offer religious teaching that is not available in public schools. Each September, more than fifty million students start the new school year. The first year is called kindergarten, and each of the following years has a grade number up to 12. Students attend classes for an average of five hours a day, five days a week Monday through Friday, and they have homework assignments to complete after school and at weekends. The school year ends in June. At high school. A student starting high school is called a freshman and becomes a sophomore in the second year. Eleventh-grade students are called juniors, and twelfth-grade students are seniors. There are eight classes a day, usually from 8 a.m. to 3 p.m. Students take classes in major subjects such as English, Maths, History, and Science. They must also take classes in physical education and a foreign language. Then they can usually choose an elective subject like art or music. At the end of term students get a grade of A, B, C, D or F (fail) for each subject. Grades are based on test scores, class participation, and class and homework assignments. As they finish each class in a subject, students get a credit. When they have enough of these, they can graduate. To graduate from high school, students have to complete a course of study that leads to a diploma. Anybody who wants to go to college must have a high school diploma and take the SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test). The SAT checks maths and English-language skills through multiple-choice questions marked by computer. Universities and colleges. Forty-one per cent of high school graduates go to college. Students pay tuition to study at public and private universities. Some of them have scholarships to help with the cost of tuition. Even with a scholarship, higher education is very expensive; many families take out loans to pay for their children’s college education. A full-time undergraduate degree usually takes four years. Many students study part-time, so it may take them much longer to finish. Some students take an associate’s degree at a community college, where the tuition fees are lower and study two more years at a four-year college to complete their bachelor’s degree. Active Vocabulary.
LESSON 3. EDUCATION IN BRITAIN. Education in Britain is compulsory between the ages of 5 to 16. Children may get it either at state schools or public ones. State schools are supported by the government and education is free. Public schools are not supported by the government so parents have to pay high fees. The main three stages of education in Britain are: 1) primary; 2) secondary; 3) further (higher) education. Primary schooling includes three age groups: 1) nurseries for children under 5 years of age; 2) infant schools for children from 5 to 7 years of age; 3) junior schools for children from 8 to 11. In a primary school children learn reading, writing, Arithmetic, History, Geography, Nature Study, Art, Physical Education etc. From a primary school children go to a secondary school. There are three types of secondary school: 1) modern schools where pupils get a general education and learn to work with their hands (instruction in woodwork, metalwork, sewing, shorthand, typing); 2) grammar schools where students are taught academic subjects as well as sciences; 3) comprehensive schools which combine all types of secondary education. 90% of all state schools are comprehensives. Comprehensive schools have 6 classes called forms. Each form consists of 3 parallel classes: 1) class A specializing in arts (English language and literature, history, foreign languages, art, etc.); 2) class B specializing in science (maths, chemistry, physics, biology, geography, etc.); 3) class C specializing in commerce (e.g. bookkeeping, accounting, shorthand, typewriting). At the age of 16 schoolchildren take their GCSE examinations. Those who pass their GCSEs may stay at school for another 2 years and take their “A” (advanced) level exams in 2 or 3 subjects. It is necessary to have A-levels to go to a university. The system of education in public schools is similar to the state system, but public schools are free from state control. The level of education is high, the discipline is very strict. At the age of 18 most public school-leavers enter universities such as Oxford and Cambridge and high political and business positions are open to them. Active Vocabulary.
Life at school. The school year is divided into terms, three months each, named after seasons: autumn term, winter term and spring term. The autumn term starts on the first Tuesday morning in September. In July schools break up for eight weeks. Life at school is more or less similar everywhere. Each group of 30 pupils is the responsibility of a form tutor. Each school day is divided into periods of 40-50 minutes, time for various lessons with 10-20 minutes breaks between them. Most of the pupils’ time is spent in a classroom equipped with desks, a chalkboard and a teacher’s table. There are laboratories for Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. There are rooms for computer studies. The Physical Education lessons are conducted at the gymnasium, games-hall or playground in the schoolyard. Every school has a library and a school canteen. In student common room boys and girls can relax during the breaks and lunchtime. The Staff common room is for teachers. Pupils at many secondary schools in Britain have to wear a school uniform: a white blouse and a pullover with a dark-coloured skirt for girls. Boys wear a shirt and a tie, dark trousers and dark-coloured pullovers. Pupils also wear blazers with the school badge on the pocket. Shoes are usually black or brown. Senior students don’t have to wear their school uniform. The pupils who violate various school regulations may be punished. Corporal punishment is banned by the government. There are rewards and prizes for the best pupils. Each school has its own system of rewards: medals and prizes. University Education. There are about 100 universities in Britain. They can be divided into three types: the old universities (Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh Universities), the 19th century universities (such as London and Manchester universities) and the new universities. They differ from each other in date of foundation, size, traditions and ways of students’ life. To be admitted to a university a pupil must do well in at least 2 A-level GCSE examinations. But some universities interview their students as well. British university courses are rather short, generally lasting three years. Most universities offer courses in Arts and Sciences and most students attend them. Students also study medicine, dentistry, health, agriculture, forestry, architecture, town and country planning and others. A university graduate gets the Degree of Bachelor of Arts (Science, Engineering, etc.). He or she may stay at the University after that, do research work and work for other degrees as well. Students have to pay fees and living costs, but every student may receive a personal grant from public funds. Postgraduates get grants, too. This grant helps to pay for books, transport and food. Oxford and Cambridge Universities are the oldest in Britain. They are often called Oxbridge but both universities are independent. They consist of several colleges. Each college offers teaching in many subjects. The way of teaching in Oxford and Cambridge is different from other Universities. Students work with tutors who give them assignments for a week, recommend books to read, lectures to attend. Tutors also check the students’ work in a week. To attend lectures isn’t compulsory. Here teachers are called dons and still wear black gowns. The universities have many clubs. Sport is part of students’ life at Oxbridge. The most popular sports are punting and rowing. Active Vocabulary.
Exercise 1. Answer the questions.
Chapter II. How to make a Motion Picture. LESSON 1. INTRODUCTION. Motion Picture is a series of images that are projected onto a screen to create the illusion of motion. Motion pictures—also called movies, films, or the cinema—are one of the most popular forms of entertainment, enabling people to immerse themselves in an imaginary world for a short period of time. But movies can also teach people about history, science, human behavior, and many other subjects. Some films combine entertainment with instruction, to make the learning process more enjoyable. In all its forms, cinema is an art as well as a business, and those who make motion pictures take great pride in their creations. The images that make up a motion picture are all individual photographs. But when they appear rapidly in succession, the human eye does not detect that they are separate images. This results from persistence of vision, a phenomenon whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Although we do not experience the images as individual photographs, we do notice the differences between them. The brain then perceives these differences as motion. Motion pictures are recorded using specially designed cameras that capture the images on rolls of film. After being processed and printed, the film is run through a projector, which shines light through the film so that the images are displayed on a screen. Most movies have accompanying sound. Active Vocabulary
Exercise 1. Make up word combinations and translate them into Russian to create through the film to combine the difference to take the illusion of motion to notice entertainment with instruction to run through great pride to display on a screen to shine light a projector imaginary images human world individual behaviour separate photographs Exercise 2. Word Study. A. series of images; the illusion of motion; most popular forms of entertainment; short period of time; human behaviour; learning process; an art as well as business; individual photographs; appear rapidly; phenomenon; capture the images. B. погрузиться в выдуманный мир; учить людей науке; сочетать удовольствие с обучением; гордиться своими творениями; инерция зрительного восприятия; доля секунды; заметить различия; специально сконструированные камеры. Exercise 3. Answer the questions. 1. What is a motion picture? 2. Why do people like movies? 3. Can films be useful foe people? Why? 4. Why doesn’t the human eye detect the separate images? 5. How are motion pictures shown to public? LESSON 2. TYPES OF MOTION PICTURES. There are many types of motion pictures, but the most significant categories are feature films, animated films, documentaries, experimental films, industrial films, and educational films. Feature films are the movies most commonly shown in large movie theatres. They typically last at least one and one-half hours and tell a fictional story or a story based on real events but portrayed by actors. The list of prominent feature films is far too long to recount in this article, but some of the best-known include The Birth of a Nation (1914), Metropolis (1926), Citizen Kane (1941), Casablanca (1942), On the Waterfront (1954), The Sound of Music (1965), The Godfather (1972), Star Wars (1977), Gandhi (1982), Jurassic Park (1993), and Titanic (1997). Animated movies follow the same format as features, but use images created by artists. These films create the illusion of movement from a series of two-dimensional drawings, three-dimensional objects, or computer-generated images. The first animated feature was the German film Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed (The Adventures of Prince Achmed, 1926). Other notable ones include Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), Dumbo (1941), Sleeping Beauty (1959), Yellow Submarine (1968), Heavy Traffic (1973), the Czech film Neco z Alenky (Alice, 1988), the Japanese film Majo no Takkyubin (Kiki’s Delivery Service, 1989), Beauty and the Beast (1991), and The Lion King (1994). In some films, animated characters interact with human actors, as in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988). Another form of film is the documentary, which deals primarily with fact, not fiction. Documentaries do not often appear in theatres, but they are seen regularly on cable and broadcast television. Some well-known documentaries are Nanook of the North (1922), The Silent World (1956), Harlan County, U.S.A. (1976), Eyes on the Prize (1987), and Hoop Dreams (1994). An experimental film is a sequence of images, literal or abstract, which do not necessarily form a narrative. An experimental film can be animated, live action, computer generated, or a combination of all three. Five noteworthy experimental films are the French film Un Chien Andalou (An Andalusian Dog, 1929), Meshes of the Afternoon (1943), A Movie (1958), Eraserhead (1978), and Privilege (1991).Industrial films are made by companies that wish to publicize their products or generate a favorable public image. Educational films are specifically intended to be shown in classrooms. Their aim is to instruct, on subjects from history to driving skills. Active Vocabulary
Exercise 1. Make up word combinations and translate them into Russian. movie images fictional skills real theatres three-dimensional characters animated submarine computer-generated television yellow story cable objects driving events to last in classrooms to tell one hour to create with fact to form the product to publicize a narrative to generate on subjects to show a public image to instruct the illusion of movement to deal a story Exercise 2. Word Study. A. significant categories; movie theatres; a story based on real events; prominent feature films; images created by artists; two-dimensional drawings; well-known documentaries; sequence of images; noteworthy experimental films; publicize products; driving skills. B. художественный фильм; обучающий фильм; длиться полтора часа; рассказать вымышленную историю; создать иллюзию движения; трёхмерные объекты; точные и абстрактные изображения; от истории до навыков вождения. Exercise 3. Answer the questions. 1. What are the most significant categories of motion pictures? 2. What can you tell about feature films/ animated films/ documentaries/ experimental films? 3. What are industrial films? 4. What is the aim of educational films? 5. What kind of films do you prefer? 6. What is your favourite film? Describe its plot. LESSON 3. THE PEOPLE WHO MAKE A MOTION PICTURE. Part One. Introduction. Many different people contribute their skills and talents to the making of a film. The stars and other actors who appear on the screen are only part of the story; most of those who work on a production do not appear on camera. The most prominent roles behind the scenes are the producer, screenwriter, director, unit production manager, casting director, director of photography, designers, assistant directors, film and sound editors, and music composer. Because every film is a unique project, the roles may overlap or differ depending on the individuals involved. Active Vocabulary
Part Two. Producer. The producer is responsible for turning a film idea into a successful motion picture. The producer must find money to pay for the production, hire actors and the production team, supervise the production process, and make arrangements for distributing the finished film to theatres. If the producer has obtained financing from a studio or film distributor, that organization may want a representative to be on hand during production. This person is called the executive producer. In addition, anyone who contributes substantially in any manner to the motion picture—with their time, money, or influence—may receive the credit of associate producer or some similar title. Active Vocabulary
Part Three. Screenwriter. Screenwriters develop original ideas for the screen or adapt previously written pieces of work as motion pictures. Adaptations may come from novels, stage plays, musicals, or many other sources. Screenwriters work in two ways. They can be commissioned to write a script or they can write a script on spec (short for “on speculation”), meaning that the screenwriter is hoping that someone will like the independently written script enough to buy the rights to it and arrange for production. Once a screenplay has been purchased, the producer may decide to have it rewritten either by the original writer or by new writers. The first step in writing a script is to create an outline, which is a one- or two-page description of the action or plot. This is followed by a treatment, which is a detailed description of the film, containing some passages of dialogue with all the scenes sketched out and the subplots developed. Then the writer begins the script itself, which fills in all the details. It sets forth the time and place of the action, describes the characters’ physical appearances, and supplies all the dialogue and action. Scripts also indicate where cameras should be positioned and what camera movements should occur while filming. Scripts indicate transition devices between scenes such as dissolves (when one image gradually replaces another), fade-ins (when an image gradually replaces the blank screen), fade-outs (when a blank screen gradually replaces the image), and straight cuts from one scene to the next. Active Vocabulary
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