Сборник текстов по английскому языку для студентов III-IV курсов
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Chapter IV. Technology. LESSON 1. ZOETROPE.    The Origins of 'Persistence of Vision' or 'Retention of Image' - the phenomena which can be used to explain how motion pictures work - can be traced back to experiments by Newton, but it became firmly established by Belgian scientist Joseph Plateau in 1829. The early Scientific Toys rely upon Persistence of Vision to achieve their aim of fooling the brain into believing what it is understanding is moving rather than a series of still images. The first of such toys was the 'Thaumatrope' - a small disc held by pieces of string. On either side of the disc was drawn an image which seemed to superimpose onto each other when the disc was spun. The invention of this device is often credited to astronomer Sir John Herschel but it was well known London Physicist Dr. Paris who made it popular. Examples of the kind of images used on the thaumotrope include a tree with bare branches and on the reverse, its foliage - when spun the tree appeared to be full of leaves; or a bird and a cage - in this instance the bird appeared to be caged when the disc was spun. Another device which illustrated this principle was Michael Faraday’s Wheel - which consisted of two matching wheels on the same axis with spokes around the perimeter. When spun together in alternate directions the wheel further away appeared to move slower or often stop when viewed through the closer wheel. Belgian physicist Joseph Antoine Ferdinand Plateau, inspired by the work of Faraday and Peter Mark Roget developed these ideas further and adapted the wheel into a toy. This involved two discs mounted on the same axis, the first disc had slots around the edge and the second had drawings with successive action. When spun and viewed in a mirror through the slots the pictures remained in their position but the figure gave the impression of movement. This device was given the name Phenakistoscope, although it received other names when marketed including the Phantasmascope and the Fantoscope. Simultaneously but independently Austrian geometrician Simon Ritter Von Stampfer produced an almost identical device which he called the Stroboscope. In 1834, William George Horner proposed a more convenient device based on Plateau’s Phenakistoscope which eliminated the need for a mirror and allowed several people to view the device at one time. Horner’s idea was to take shape in the form of drum with an open top into which was placed a hand drawn sequence of pictures on a strip of paper. The pictures were placed around the inside of the edge of the drum and could be viewed through slots in the outside of the drum. The images gave the illusion of movement as the drum was spun. Horner referred to his device as his Daedalum. Strangely the Dadalum was almost forgotten for over thirty years until 1887, at which point it was patented almost simultaneously by William F. Lincoln in America who gave it the name Zoetrope, and in England by M. Bradley. Active Vocabulary
Exercise 1. Retell the text. Exercise 2. Write 10 sentences with the words from the Active Vocabulary. Exercise 3. Make up 10 questions on the text. LESSON 2. PRAXINOSCOPE.  The combination of moving picture 'toys' and vaudeville exhibition devices such as the magic lantern was inevitable and one of the first successful attempts came in the form of the Praxinoscope.Patented in 1877, the Praxinoscope was the result of work carried out by Frenchman Emile Reynaud. In essence the Praxinoscope was an adaptation of Horner’s Zoetrope which at the time had become extremely popular. Using a drum design which revolved, as with the Zoetrope, the images were viewed reflected in a prism of mirrors which rose from the centre of the drum. Each mirror as it passed flashed a clear image opposed to it. The result was perfect animation without the loss of luminosity in movement which was experienced with the Zoetrope. The next step, as Reynaud saw it, was to adapt his existing device so that the animated pictures could be projected. The replacement of the opaque drawings with transparent drawings meant that light could be shone through them. The light which shone through the pictures was reflected by the mirror prism and focused onto a screen through a lens. In 1872 Reynaud took this idea and turned it into theatrical entertainment. Up until this point animation toys had been limited to repetitive images. Reynaud noted this and devised a method of painting a series of pictures on small glass plates which were joined together in a single flexible strip. The animated characters were projected onto a screen from behind. Reynaud exhibited his projecting Praxinoscope giving public performances using long broad strips of hand painted frames. The effect he achieved was successful but was jerky and slow. In addition the labour required to draw the strips meant that Reynaud’s films could not easily be reproduced. Reynaud’s Theatre Optique came remarkably close to the cinema - all that it lacked was the addition of photography. Active Vocabulary
Exercise 1. Retell the text. Exercise 2. Write 10 sentences with the words from the Active Vocabulary. Exercise 3. Make up 10 questions on the text. L  ESSON 3. KINETOSCOPE.The Kinetoscope is an early motion picture exhibition device. Employing W.K.L Dickson in the Spring of 1883, Edison soon noted his enthusiasm and value and made him his assistant. Five years later in 1888, inspired by his Photograph, Edison set Dickson to work on developing, “...an instrument which does for the Eye what the Phonograph has done for the Ear, which is the recording and reproduction of things in motion....” Early experiments were tried using ideas developed from the phonograph - a cylinder based device onto which a series of microphotographs would be arranged in a spiral formation - like the recorded tracks in the tinfoil of a phonograph. Edison envisaged projection to be achieved by shining a light source through the microphotographs from inside the cylinder. In the October of 1888 when Edison’s first patent was filed, several names were discussed including the Kinesigraph and the Mutograph with Edison eventually settling for the Kinetoscope. Dickson, it seems did the majority of the work on the Kinetoscope and by early 1889 work was clearly moving along. Refinements to the original description were made regarding the problem of the intermittent motion. Initial ideas for getting intermittent motion included the use of electric sparks inside the cylinder which provided intermittent illumination; and a Start-Stop movement of the cylinder itself. The photographic medium for presenting the microphotographs had also required serious thought. Experimentation with coating the cylinder with photographic emulsion was considered but deemed impractical. A breakthrough came with the launch of photographic quality celluloid by John Carbutt. In June of 1889 the Edison Laboratory ordered 12 Carbutt film sheets - each sheet measuring twenty by fifty inches. After much experimentation the cylinder device was clearly at a dead end and with the results produced proving successful but highly impractical, Dickson and Edison turned their attention to film. Edison had already seen flexible film used in Marey’s Chronophotographe camera, Dickson acquired some film stock and in May 1891 a prototype Kinetoscope was unveiled using flexible film. The initial prototype was actually a 'taking device' - camera, but could be converted to a projector by shining a light through the film and lens. In a demonstration to a Convention of the National Federation of Women’s Clubs, invited by Mrs Edison, the audience members in turn could view the moving pictures through the aperture where the lens had been. The Kinetoscope mechanism was driven by an electric motor. The peephole version which is recognised as “The Kinetoscope” was ready in prototype form at the end of the Summer, 1892. It comprised an upright wooden cabinet, four foot high with a peephole in the top. Magnifying lenses in the peephole enlarged the film, a continuous band around fifty foot long was arranged around a series of spools. The film was transported round the Kinetoscope by an electrically driven sprocket wheel at the top of the box which engaged corresponding sprocket holes in the 35mm film. Illuminating the film was an electric lamp which was separated by a shutter providing intermittent light illuminating each frame in turn and producing a moving image. Active Vocabulary
Exercise 1. Retell the text. Exercise 2. Write 10 sentences with the words from the Active Vocabulary. Exercise 3. Make up 10 questions on the text. LESSON 4. CINEMATOGRAPHE.  It was Louis and Auguste’s father Antoine who sparked a moving picture interest in sons after seeing Edison’s Kinetoscope and with the Lumière Factory behind them (which manufactured photographic goods) the brothers set to work designing a camera and a projector.The first experiments carried out by the Lumière Brothers were based around the intermittent mechanism used in sewing machines. On February 13 1895, Louis and Auguste patented the name Cinématographe in both their names. Their Cinématographe combined a camera for recording the movement, a printer and, when connected to a magic lantern, a projector. About the same size of an ordinary handheld still camera, the Cinématographe differed from the Kinetoscope in many ways - notably in its size and weight. The Kinetograph - Edison’s camera - was confined, in general, to the 'Black Maria' Studio in Edison’s Laboratory grounds; in contrast the Cinématographe had no such constraints and could be taken almost anywhere thanks to its lightweight design. In addition was its method of presentation and the combination of all the basic elements needed to record and project motion pictures in one box. Like Edison the Lumières used 35mm film but unlike Edison opted for a film speed of 16 fps as opposed to the 46 fps chosen by Edison. In addition, the Lumières were quick to patent their Cinématographe abroad (Edison’s failure to do so in Britain had led to copies made by Robert Paul). To promote their new invention Auguste planned a clever publicity programme of several private screenings which generated much public interest and speculation before the official unveiling on December 28th 1895 at the Grand Cafe on Paris's Boulevard Des Capucines. Active Vocabulary
Exercise 1. Retell the text. Exercise 2. Write 10 sentences with the words from the Active Vocabulary. Exercise 3. Make up 10 questions on the text. LESSON 5. MUTOSCOPE.  During his time at Edison, W.K.L Dickson, it seems, had close association with 'rival' inventors which included the Lathams and Henry Norton Marvin.With his partner, Herman Casler, Marvin took Dickson's proposal - an elaboration of the flick-book principle - and set to work. Together they worked on their device which was perfected and patented with the name Mutoscope by Casler on November 21st 1894. Expanding on the flick-book principle, the Mutoscope contained a sequence of photographs which were arranged around the perimeter of a drum. A simple turn of a handle flipped the cards rapidly, giving the impression of movement. The Mutoscope was, like the Kinetoscope, a Peepshow device and included a viewing aperture which customers peered into to watch the action. Unlike the Kinetoscope the Mutoscope didn’t rely on any special illumination or an electric motor and gave viewers much greater control over the viewing - for example they could control the speed at which the action took place or turning the handle in the reverse direction produced backward motion. Casler had perfected a camera for the Mutoscope to produce films and was in operation by early June of 1895 with some of the first films, it is believed, taken by Dickson. The camera was named the Biograph. The partnership of Dickson, Marvin, Casler and Elias Koopman led to the formation of the American Mutoscope Company on December 27th 1895. Active Vocabulary
Exercise 1. Retell the text. Exercise 2. Write 5 sentences with the words from the Active Vocabulary. Exercise 3. Make up 10 questions on the text. LESSON 6. VITASCOPE.  In March of 1895, Charles Francis Jenkins, a young government clerk in Washington entered into an agreement with Thomas Armat, a fellow student at the Bliss School of Electricity. Their aim was to develop a motion picture device.Jenkins had already invented a device for viewing motion pictures which he called the Phantoscope, a variant on the Edison Kinetoscope. With this experience the two were able to work quickly and by the 28th of May 1895 the two had developed a projecting version of the Phantoscope and applied for its patent. That September, the two travelled to Atlanta with their invention and gave a public demonstration at the Cotton States Exposition. Although no evidence remains regarding the quality of their projections or the success of the show, one can guess that it was well received as shortly after this event the partnership broke up with each party claiming the invention to be their own work. After the split the two worked independently on improving the Phantoscope. Jenkins had his version of the projecting Phantoscope ready by the first week in November 1895 making the first public demonstration on December 12 at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia. At the same time, Armat, upon perfecting his version, approached prominent entrepreneurs Raff and Gammon who were excited by what they saw and approached Edison with the intention that he develop the machine. Edison agreed and in February 1896 the Armat projecting Phantoscope was renamed the Vitascope and was preceded by 'Edison’s' for, as Raff and Gammon explained, effective publicity and exploitation of the device. The first theatrical exhibition took place on the 23d of April in 1896 at Koster and Bial’s Music Hall in Herald Square, New York City. The film that made the greatest impression on the audience that day was Robert Paul and Birt Acres' 'Rough Sea at Dover'. Exercise 1. Retell the text. Exercise 2. Make up 10 questions on the text. Exercise 3. Translate the sentences into English: 1. Мы выполнили все, что намечали сделать. 2. Джим выбыл из соревнований по теннису в первом же матче. 3. На завтрак у нее обычно чашка чая, яблоко и неизменный йогурт. 4. Рейно произвёл замену непрозрачных рисунков просвечивающими. 5. Танцоры должны быть гибкими. 6. Он рассматривает совершенно новую систему образования. 7. Что пробудило твой интерес к автомобильному делу? 8. Оба парня выбрали военно-морской флот. 9. Если он потерпит неудачу в этом деле, он может погубить свою репутацию. 10. Из всех цветов в саду немногие могут соперничать с лилией. |
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