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Unit 2. HISTORY OF COMPUTERS1. Ознакомьтесь с терминами текста 1
2. Прочтите текст и скажите, о каких первых вычислительных приборах рассказывается в нем. Text 1. THE FIRST CALCULATING DEVICES Let us take a look at the history of computers that we know today. The very first calculating device used was the ten fingers of a man's hands. This, in fact, is why today we still count in tens and multiples of tens. Then the abacus was invented. People went on using some form of abacus well into the 16th century, and it is still being used in some parts of the world because it can be understood without knowing how to read. During the 17th and 18th centuries many people tried to find easy ways of calculating. J.Napier, a Scotsman, invented a mechanical way of multiplying and dividing, which is now the modern slide rule works. Henry Briggs used Napier's ideas to produce logarithm tables which all mathematicians use today. Calculus, another branch of mathematics, was independently invented by both Sir Isaak Newton, an Englishman, and Leibnitz, a German mathematician. The first real calculating machine appeared in 1820 as the result of several people's experiments. In 1830 Charles Babbage, a gifted English mathematician, proposed to build a general-purpose problem-solving machine that he called "the analytical engine". This machine, which Babbage showed at the Paris Exhibition in 1855, was an attempt to cut out the human being altogether, except for providing the machine with the necessary facts about the problem to be solved. He never finished this work, but many of his ideas were the basis for building today's computers. By the early part of the twentieth century electromechanical machines had been developed and were used for business data processing. Dr. Herman Hollerith, a young statistician from the US Census Bureau successfully tabulated the 1890 census. Hollerith invented a means of coding the data by punching holes into cards. He built one machine to punch the holes and others to tabulate the collected data. Later Hollerith left the Census Bureau and established his own tabulating machine company. Through a series of merges the company eventually became the IBM Corporation. Until the middle of the twentieth century machines designed to manipulate punched card data were widely used for business data processing. These early electromechanical data processors were called unit record machines because each punched card contained a unit of data. In the mid — 1940 s electronic computers were developed to perform calculations for military and scientific purposes. By the end of the 1960s commercial models of these computers were widely used for both scientific computation and business data processing. Initially these computers accepted their input data from punched cards. By the late 1970s punched cards had been almost universally replaced by keyboard terminals. Since that time advances in science have led to the proliferation of computers throughout our society, and the past is but the prologue that gives us a glimpse of the future. 3. Просмотрите текст еще раз. Ответьте на вопросы, используя информацию текста. 1. What was the very first calculating device? 2. What is the abacus? 3. What is the modern slide rule? 4. Who gave the ideas for producing logarithm tables? 5. How did Newton and Leibnitz contribute to the problem of calculation? 6. When did the first calculating machine appear? 7. What was the main idea of Ch.Babbage's machine? 8. How did electromechanical machines appear and what were they used for? 9. What means of coding the data did Hollerith devise? 10. How were those electromechanical machines called and why? 11. What kind of computers appeared later? 12. What new functions did the computers of 1970 s have? 4. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний: Вычислительное устройство; легкий способ вычисле-ния; поэтому (вот почему); кратное десяти; изобрести механический способ умножения и деления; логарифмическая линейка; составить таблицы логарифмов; математический анализ; изобрести независимо (друг от друга); в результате; полностью исключить человека; кроме (за исключением); обработка деловой информации; средство кодирования информации; перфокарты; пробивать отверстия; оформить собранные данные в таблицу; работать с данными на перфокарте; устройство, записывающее информацию блоками; единица информации; выполнять вычисления; для научных целей; клавишный терминал. 5. Вспомните значение следующих глаголов и подберите к ним производные. Например: to calculate — calculating, calculator, calculation. To compute, to invent, to know, to multiply, to divide, to depend, to solve, to provide, to process, to code, to punch, to collect, to design, to store, to contribute, to use, to manipulate, to assemble, to connect, to consume, to rely, to-divide, to multiply, to inform, to instruct, to discover, to operate. 6. Переведите словосочетания, содержащие: А. Причастие I — Participle I Computers using vacuum tubes; the machine calculating mathematical problems; the computer keeping instructions in its memory; binary code storing data and instructions; the vacuum tube controlling and amplifying electronic signals; computers performing computations in milliseconds; electronic pulses moving at the speed of light; students coding the information by using a binary code; devices printing the information; keyboard terminals replacing vacuum tubes. Б. Причастие II — Participle II The given information; the name given to the machine; the coded data; the device used in World War II; the invention named ENIAC; the machine called EDVAC; instructions kept in the memory; the engine designed for storing data; data stored in a binary code; vacuum tubes invented by J. Neumann; the general-purpose machine proposed by Ch. Babbage; the machine provided with the necessary facts. 7. Ознакомьтесь с терминами текста 2.
8. Прочтите текст 2 и скажите, что вы узнали о первых цифровых и аналоговых компьютерах. Переведите текст. Text 2. THE FIRST COMPUTERS In 1930 the first analog computer was built by American named Vannevar Bush. This device was used in World War II to help aim guns. Many technical developments of electronic digital computers took place in the 1940s and 1950s. Mark I, the name given to the first digital computer, was completed in 1944. The man responsible for this invention was Professor Howard Aiken. This was the first machine that could figure out long lists of mathematical problems at a very fast rate. In 1946 two engineers at the University of Pennsilvania, J.Eckert and J.Maushly, built their digital computer with vacuum tubes. They named their new invention ENIAC (the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator). Another important achievement in developing computers came in 1947, when John von Neumann developed the idea of keeping instructions for the computer inside the computer's memory. The contribution of John von Neumann was particularly significant. As contrasted with Babbage's analytical engine, which was designed to store only data, von Neumann's machine, called the Electronic Discrete Variable Computer, or EDVAC, was able to store both data and instructions. He also contributed to the idea of storing data and instructions in a binary code that uses only ones and zeros. This simplified computer design. Thus computers use two conditions, high voltage, and low voltage, to translate the symbols by which we communicate into unique combinations of electrical pulses. We refer to these combinations as codes. Neumann's stored program computer as well as other machines of that time were made possible by the invention of the vacuum tube that could control and amplify electronic signals. Early computers, using vacuum tubes, could perform computations in thousandths of seconds, called milliseconds, instead of seconds required by mechanical devices. 9. Просмотрите текст еще раз и ответьте на вопросы, используя информацию текста. 1. When was the first analog computer built? 2. Where and how was that computer used? 3. When did the first digital computers appear? 4. Who was the inventor of the first digital computer? 5. What could that device do? 6. What is ENIAC? Decode the word. 7. What was J.Neumann's contribution into the development of computers? 8. What were the advantages of EDVAC in comparison with ENIAC? 9. What does binary code mean? 10. Due to what invention could the first digital computers be built? 10. Найдите в тексте 2 английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний. Цифровые компьютеры; технические усовершенствования; совершенствование компьютеров; ответственный за изобретение; математические задачи; электронные трубки; важное достижение; запоминающее устройство; значительный вклад; двоичный код; высокое напряжение; низкое напряжение; электрические импульсы; тысячная доля секунды. Происходить; завершать; вычислять; хранить команды внутри компьютера; запоминать информацию; запоминать команды; содействовать; использовать единицу и ноль; упрощать дизайн; усиливать сигналы; выполнять вычисления. 11. Составьте пары близких по значению слов из перечня, представленного ниже. Verbs: to name, to complete, to calculate, to develop, to keep, to interpret, to communicate, to fulfill, to apply, to translate, to improve, to build, to call, to store, to communicate, to figure out, to perform, to use, to finish, to construct, to connect. Nouns: speed, aim, storage, information, machine, significance, computation, data, device, rate, calculation, purpose, memory, importance. 12. Заполните пропуски необходимыми словами. 1. The first digital computer could ______ a lot of mathematical problems at a fast ______ 2. Vannevar Bush built the first ______ computer in 1930. 3. Babbage's analytical engine was designed to _____ data. 4. J. von Neumann invented a machine that was able to _____ not only data but also_______. 5. Neumann _____ the idea of storing data in a___________. 6. Computers use two conditions for ______ symbols. 7. The invention of ___________ made computers possible to control and _____ electronic signals. 8. Due to ___________ computers could perform _____ much faster. 13. Переведите предложения или словосочетания, содержащие: А. Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства 1. Computers were designed to perform thousands of computations per second. 2. To make computers more reliable transistors were used. 3. They were applied to reduce computational time. 4. To integrate large numbers of circuit elements into a small chip, transistors should be reduced in size. 5. To use integrated circuit technology new computers were built. 6. Analytical engine was invented to store data. Б. Инфинитив в функции определения The problem to be solved; the work to be finished; the cards to be punched; calculations to be performed; the machine to be shown at the exhibition; the device to be provided with the necessary facts; computers to be used for data processing; efforts to increase reliability; electronics to connect systems and subsystems; the speed of response to depend on the size of transistor; computers to perform thousands of calculations per second; vacuum tubes to control and amplify electric signals; these are circuits to use a large number of transistors; operations to be performed. 14. Выполните письменно перевод текста 3 по вариантам. Text 3. SOME FIRST COMPUTER MODELS 1. Babbage's Analytical Engine In 1832, an English inventor and mathematician Charles Babbage was commissioned by the British government to develop a system for calculating the rise and fall of the tides. Babbage designed a device and called it an analytical engine. It was the first programmable computer, complete with punched cards for data input. Babbage gave the engine the ability to perform different types of mathematical operations. The machine was not confined to simple addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division. It had its own "memory", due to which the machine could use different combinations and sequences of operations to suit the purposes of the operator. The machine of his dream was never realized in his life. Yet Babbage's idea didn't die with him. Other scientists made at- tempts to build mechanical, general-purpose, stored-program computers throughout the next; century. In 1941 a relay computer was built in Germany by Conrad Zuse. It was a major step toward the realization of Babbage's dream. 2. The Mark I Computer (1937-1944) In 1944 in the United States, International Business Machines (IBM) built a machine in cooperation with scientists working at Harvard University under the direction of Prof. Aiken. The machine, called Mark I Automatic Sequence-Controlled Calculator, was built to perform calculations for the Manhattan Project, which led to the development of atomic bomb. It was the largest electromechanical calculator ever built. It used over 3000 electrically actuated switches to control its operations. Although its operations were not controlled electronically, Aiken's machine is often classified as a computer because its instructions, which were entered by means of a punched paper tape, could be altered. The computer could create ballistic tables used by naval artillery. The relay computer had its problems. Since relays are electromechanical devices, the switching contacts operate by means of electromagnets and springs. They are slow, very noisy and consume a lot of power. 3. The ABC (1939-1942) The work on introducing electronics into the design of computers was going on. The gadget that was the basis for the first computer revolution was the vacuum tube, an (electronic device invented early in the twentieth century. The vacuum tube was ideal for use in computers. It had no mechanical moving parts. It switched flows of electrons off and on at rates far faster than possible with any mechanical device. It was relatively reliable, and operated hundreds of hours before failure. The first vacuum tube computer was built at Iowa University at about the same time as the Mark I. The computer, capable to perform thousands of related computations, was called ABC, the Atanasoff-Berry Computer, after Dr. John Atanasoff, a professor of physics and his assistant, Clifford Berry. It used 45 vacuum tubes for internal logic and capacitors for storage. From the ABC a number of vacuum-tube digital computers developed. Soon the British developed a computer with vacuum tubes and used it to decode German messages. 15. Прочтите текст 4 и передайте кратко его содержание а) на русском языке; б) на английском языке. Text 4. FOUR GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS The first vacuum tubes computers are referred to as first generation computers, and the approximate period of their use was from 1950 to 1959. UNIVAC 1 (UNIVersal Automatic Com-' puter) is an example of these computers which could perform thousands of calculations per second. Those devices were not only bulky, they were also unreliable. The thousands of vacuum tubes emitted large amounts of heat and burned out frequently. The transistor, a smaller and more reliable successor to the vacuum tube, was invented in 1948. So-called second generation computers, which used large numbers of transistors were able to reduce computational time from milliseconds to microseconds, or millionths of seconds. Second-generation computers were smaller, faster and more reliable than first-generation computers. Advances in electronics technology continued, and microelectronics made it possible to reduce the size of transistors and integrate large numbers of circuit elements into very small chips of silicon. The computers that were designed to use integrated circuit technology were called third generation computers, and the approximate time span of these machines was from 1960 to 1979. They could perform many data processing operations in nanoseconds, which are billionths of seconds. Fourth generation computers have now arrived, and the integrated circuits that are being developed have been greatly reduced in size. This is due to microminiaturization, which means that the circuits are much smaller than before; as many as 100 tiny circuits are placed now on a single chip. A chip is a square or rectangular piece of silicon, usually from 1/10 to 1/4 inch, upon which several layers of an integrated circuit are etched or imprinted, after which the circuit is encapsulated in plastic or metal. TESTS 1. Подберите вместо пропусков подходящее по смыслу слово. 1. British scientists invented a _____ way of multiplying and dividing. a) mechanical; b) electrical; c) optical. 2. A new branch of mathematics, _____, was invented in England and Germany independently. a) mechanics; b) arithmetics; c) calculus. 3. A young American clerk invented a means of coding _____by punched cards. a) letters; b) data; c) numbers. 4. Soon punched cards were replaced by _____ terminals. a) printer; b) scanner; c) keyboard. 5. Mark I was the first _____ computer that could solve mathematical problems. a) analog; b) digital; c) mechanical. 6. J. von Neumann simplified his computer by storing information in a _____ code. a) analytical; b) numerical; c) binary. 7. Vacuum tubes could control and _____ electric signals. a) calculate; b) amplify; c) generate. 8. The first generation computers were _____ and often burned out. a) uncomfortable; b) uncommunicative; c) unreliable. 9. Computers of the second generation used _____ which reduced computational time greatly. a) transistors; b) integrated circuits; c) vacuum tubes. 10. Due to _____ the development of the fourth generation computers became possible. a) microelectronics; b) miniaturization; c) microminiaturization. 2. Выберите правильный перевод предложений, содержащих неличные формы глагола (Infinitive, Gerund, Participle I, Participle II). 1. That was the machine provided with the necessary facts about the problem to be solved. а) Машину обеспечили необходимыми фактами, чтобы она решила проблему. б) То была машина, снабженная необходимой информацией о задаче, которую предстояло решить. в) Эту машину обеспечили необходимой информацией о решаемой задаче. 2. The computers designed to use 1С were called third generation computers. а) Компьютеры сконструировали для использования ИС и назвали их третьим поколением. б) Компьютеры назывались третьим поколением, потому что в них использовались ИС. в) Компьютеры, сконструированные, чтобы использовать ИС, назывались компьютерами третьего поколения. 3. Mark I was the first machine to figure out mathematical problems. а) Первая машина для вычисления математических проблем была Марк I. б) Марк I явилась первой машиной для вычисления математических задач. в) Марк I была первой машиной, которая вычисляла математические задачи. 4. Early computers using vacuum tubes could perform computations in milliseconds. а) Первые компьютеры, использующие электронные лампы, могли выполнять вычисления в течение миллисекунд. б) Ранние компьютеры использовали вакуумные лампы, которые выполняли вычисления за миллисекунды. в) Рано компьютеры, использующие электронные трубки, выполняли вычисления за миллисекунды. 5. Vacuum tubes to control and amplify electric signals were invented by Neumann. а) Изобретенные Нойманом вакуумные лампы регулировали и усиливали электрические сигналы. б) Нойман изобрел электронные лампы для управления и усиления электрических сигналов. в) Электронные лампы, которые регулировали и усиливали электрические сигналы, были изобретены Нойманом. 6. Neumann's machine called the EDVAC was designed to store both data and instructions. а) Неймановскую машину, называемую EDVAC, сконстру-ировали для хранения информации и команд. б) Машина Ноймана, названная EDVAC, была создана, чтобы запоминать как информацию, так и команды. в) Машину Ноймана, которая хранила данные и инструкции, назвали EDVAC. 7. Computers were developed to perform calculations for military and scientific purposes. а) Компьютеры были созданы, чтобы выполнять вычисления для военных и научных целей. б) Компьютеры создали для выполнения военных и научных вычислений. в) Созданные компьютеры выполняли вычисления военного и научного назначения. 8. An American clerk invented a means of coding the data by punching holes into cards. а) Американский служащий изобрел посредством коди-рования информации перфокарту. б) Американский клерк изобрел перфокарту, кодируя информацию. в) Американский служащий изобрел средство шифрования информации путем пробивания отверстий в карте. |
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